Universal gate:
NAND and NOR Gates are called Universal Gates because all the other gates can be created by
using these gates.
Diode:
A diode is a specialized electronic component with two electrodes called the anode and the
cathode. Most diodes are made with semiconductor materials such as silicon, germanium, or
selenium. Some diodes are comprised of metal electrodes in a chamber evacuated or filled with
a pure elemental gas at low pressure. Diodes can be used as rectifiers, signal limiters, voltage
regulators, switches, signal modulators, signal mixers, signal demodulators, and oscillators. The
fundamental property of a diode is its tendency to conduct electric current in only one
direction.
Semiconductor:
A semiconductor is a substance, usually a solid chemical element or compound that can
conduct electricity under some conditions but not others, making it a good medium for the
control of electrical current. Its conductance varies depending on the current or voltage applied
to a control electrode, or on the intensity of irradiation by infrared (IR), visible light, ultraviolet
(UV), or X rays.
The specific properties of a semiconductor depend on the impurities, or dopants, added to it.
An N-type semiconductor carries current mainly in the form of negatively-charged electrons, in
a manner similar to the conduction of current in a wire. A P-type semiconductor carries current
predominantly as electron deficiencies called holes. A hole has a positive electric charge, equal
and opposite to the charge on an electron. In a semiconductor material, the flow of holes
occurs in a direction opposite to the flow of electrons.
Elemental semiconductors include antimony, arsenic, boron, carbon, germanium, selenium,
silicon, sulfur, and tellurium. Silicon is the best-known of these, forming the basis of most
integrated circuits (ICs). Common semiconductor compounds include gallium arsenide, indium
antimonide, and the oxides of most metals. Of these, gallium arsenide (GaAs) is widely used in
low-noise, high-gain and weak-signal amplifying devices.
A semiconductor device can perform the function of a vacuum tube having hundreds of times
its volume. A single integrated circuit (IC), such as a microprocessor chip, can do the work of a
set of vacuum tubes that would fill a large building and require its own electric generating
plant.
Conductor:
In physics and electrical engineering, a conductor is an object or type of material that allows the
flow of electrical current in one or more directions. A wire is an electrical conductor that can
carry electricity along its length.
The resistance R and conductance G of a conductor of uniform cross section, therefore, can be
computed as
where is the length of the conductor, measured in metres [m], A is the cross-section area of
the conductor measured in square metres [m²], σ (sigma) is the electrical
conductivity measured in siemens per meter (S·m−1), and ρ (rho) is the electrical resistivity(also
called specific electrical resistance) of the material, measured in ohm-metres (Ω·m). The
resistivity and conductivity are proportionality constants, and therefore depend only on the
material the wire is made of, not the geometry of the wire. Resistivity and conductivity
are reciprocals:
Resistivity is a measure of the material's ability to oppose electric
current.
Inductor:
An inductor is a passive electronic component that stores energy in the form of a magnetic
field. In its simplest form, an inductor consists of a wire loop or coil. The inductance is directly
proportional to the number of turns in the coil. Inductance also depends on the radius of the
coil and on the type of material around which the coil is wound. The standard unit of
inductance is the henry, abbreviated H.
Inductors are used with capacitors in various wireless communications applications. An
inductor connected in series or parallel with a capacitor can provide discrimination against
unwanted signals. Large inductors are used in the power supplies of electronic equipment of all
types, including computers and their peripherals. In these systems, the inductors help to
smooth out the rectified utility AC, providing pure, battery-like DC.
Rectifier:
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically
reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction.
Rectifiers have many uses, but are often found serving as components of DC power supplies
and high-voltage direct current power transmission systems. Rectification may serve in roles
other than to generate direct current for use as a source of power. As noted, detectors of radio
signals serve as rectifiers. In gas heating systems flame rectification is used to detect presence
of a flame.
Because of the alternating nature of the input AC sine wave, the process of rectification alone
produces a DC current that, though unidirectional, consists of pulses of current. Many
applications of rectifiers, such as power supplies for radio, television and computer equipment,
require a steady constant DC current (as would be produced by a battery). In these applications
the output of the rectifier is smoothed by an electronic filter (usually a capacitor) to produce a
steady current.
Inverter:
A power inverter, or inverter, is an electronic device or circuitry that changes direct current
(DC) to alternating current (AC).
Application: DC power source usage, Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), Electric motor
speed control, Power grid, Solar, Induction heating, HVDC power transmission, Electroshock
weapons.
Capacitor:
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component
used to store electrical energy temporarily in an electric field.
An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of
charge ±Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:
Application: Energy storage, Pulsed power and weapons, Power conditioning, Power factor
correction, High-pass and low-pass filters, Suppression and coupling, (Noise suppression, spikes,
and snubbers) , Motor starters, Signal processing, Tuned circuits, Sensing, Oscillators, Producing
light.
Transformer:
A transformer is a static machine used for transforming power from one circuit to another
without changing frequency. This is a very basic definition of transformer.
Types of transformer: Step Up Transformer & Step down Transformer, Three Phase
Transformer & Single Phase Transformer, Electrical Power Transformer, Distribution
Transformer & Instrument Transformer, Two Winding Transformer & Auto Transformer,
Outdoor Transformer & Indoor Transformer.
MOSFET:
The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or MOS FET) is a
type of transistor used for amplifying or switching electronic signals.
Application: Digital integrated circuits such as microprocessors and memory devices contain
thousands to millions of integrated MOSFET transistors on each device, providing the basic
switching functions required implementing logic gates and data storage. Discrete devices are
widely used in applications such as switch mode power supplies, variable-frequency drives and
other power electronics applications where each device may be switching hundreds or
thousands of watts. Radio-frequency amplifiers up to the UHF spectrum use MOSFET transistors
as analog signal and power amplifiers. Radio systems also use MOSFETs as oscillators, or mixers
to convert frequencies. MOSFET devices are also applied in audio-frequency power amplifiers
for public address systems, sound reinforcement and home and automobile sound systems.
CMOS:
Complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) is a technology for constructing
integrated circuits. CMOS technology is used in microprocessors, microcontrollers, static RAM,
and other digital logic circuits. CMOS technology is also used for several analog circuits such as
image sensors (CMOS sensor), data converters, and highly integrated transceivers for many
types of communication.
Logic Gate:
In electronics, a logic gate is an idealized or physical device implementing a Boolean function;
that is, it performs a logical operation on one or more logical inputs, and produces a single
logical output.
IC:
An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit (also referred to as an IC, a chip, or a
microchip) is a set of electronic circuits on one small plate ("chip") of semiconductor material,
normally silicon.
VFD:
A Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) is a type of motor controller that drives an electric motor by
varying the frequency and voltage supplied to the electric motor. Other names for a VFD are
variable speed drive, adjustable speed drive, adjustable frequency drive, AC drive, microdrive,
and inverter.
Servo Drive:
A servo drive is a special electronic amplifier used to power electric servomechanisms. A servo
drive monitors the feedback signal from the servomechanism and continually adjusts for
deviation from expected behavior.
Servo systems can be used in CNC machining, factory automation, and robotics, among other
uses. Their main advantage over traditional DC or AC motors is the addition of motor feedback.
This feedback can be used to detect unwanted motion, or to ensure the accuracy of the
commanded motion. The feedback is generally provided by an encoder of some sort. Servos, in
constant speed changing use, have a better life cycle than typical AC wound motors. Servo
motors can also act as a brake by shunting off generated electricity from the motor itself.
DC converter:
A DC-to-DC converter is an electronic circuit which converts a source of direct current (DC) from
one voltage level to another. It is a class of power converter. DC to DC converters are important
in portable electronic devices such as cellular phones and laptop computers, which are supplied
with power from batteries primarily.
Electric Motor:
An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy.
To calculate a motor's efficiency, the mechanical output power is divided by the electrical input
power:
Where is energy conversion efficiency, is electrical input power, and is mechanical output
power.
A premium efficiency electric motor: more than 90%.
Electric Generator:
In electricity generation, a generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical
energy for use in an external circuit.
Generator Efficiency:
Various power stages in the case of a d.c generator are shown below:
Following are the three generator efficiencies
1. Mechanical Efficiency
2. Electrical Efficiency
3. Overall or Commercial Efficiency
It is obvious that overall efficiency is the product of mechanical and electrical efficiencies. For
good generators, its value may be as high as 95%.
Home automation:
Home automation is the residential extension of building automation. It is automation of the
home, housework or household activity. Home automation may include centralized control of
lighting, HVAC (heating, ventilation and air conditioning), appliances, security locks of gates and
doors and other systems, to provide improved convenience, comfort, energy efficiency and
security.
Advantages of automation:
(1) Increased throughput or productivity. (2) Improved quality or increased predictability of
quality. (3) Improved robustness (consistency), of processes or product. (4) Increased
consistency of output. (5) Reduced direct human labor costs and expenses.
Disadvantages of automation:
(1) Security Threats/Vulnerability. (2) Unpredictable/excessive development costs. (3) High
initial cost.
Relay:
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Relays are used where it is necessary to control a
circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical isolation between control and controlled
circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal.
Magnetic conductor:
A magnetic conductor is a part or a kit of parts intended for a lossy magnetic flow generated
with current in windings of such devices as transformers, throttles, magnetic cartridges, filters
and circuits.
Sensor:
A sensor is an object whose purpose is to detect events or changes in its environment, and then
provide a corresponding output. A sensor is a type of transducer; sensors may provide various
types of output, but typically use electrical or optical signals.
Transducer:
A transducer is an electronic device that converts energy from one form to another. Common
examples include microphones, loudspeakers, thermometers, position and pressure sensors,
and antenna.
Optocoupler:
In electronics, an opto-isolator, also called an optocoupler, photocoupler, or optical isolator, is a
component that transfers electrical signals between two isolated circuits by using light. Optoisolators prevent high voltages from affecting the system receiving the signal.
Transistor:
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic signals and electrical
power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at least three terminals for connection to
an external circuit. The transistor's low cost, flexibility, and reliability have made it a ubiquitous
device. Transistors are commonly used in digital circuits as electronic switches which can be
either in an "on" or "off" state, both for high-power applications such as switched-mode power
supplies and for low-power applications such as logic gates.
Thermostat:
A thermostat is a component of which senses the temperature of a system so that the system's
temperature is maintained near a desired set point. The thermostat does this by switching
heating or cooling devices on or off, or regulating the flow of a heat transfer fluid as needed, to
maintain the correct temperature. Thermostats are used in any device or system that heats or
cools to a set point temperature, examples include building HVAC/air conditioner and central
heating, kitchen equipment including ovens and refrigerators and medical and scientific
incubators.
Laws of resistance:
The laws of resistance state that, Electrical resistance R of a conductor or wire is
1. Directly proportional to its length, l i.e. R ∝ l
2. Inversely proportional to its area of cross-section, a i.e.
Combining these two laws we get,
where ρ (rho) is the proportionality constant and known as resistivity or specific resistance of
the material of the conductor or wire.
Ohm’s law:
Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly
proportional to the voltage across the two points. Introducing the constant of proportionality,
the resistance, one arrives at the usual mathematical equation that describes this relationship:
NAND and NOR Gates are called Universal Gates because all the other gates can be created by
using these gates.
Diode:
A diode is a specialized electronic component with two electrodes called the anode and the
cathode. Most diodes are made with semiconductor materials such as silicon, germanium, or
selenium. Some diodes are comprised of metal electrodes in a chamber evacuated or filled with
a pure elemental gas at low pressure. Diodes can be used as rectifiers, signal limiters, voltage
regulators, switches, signal modulators, signal mixers, signal demodulators, and oscillators. The
fundamental property of a diode is its tendency to conduct electric current in only one
direction.
Semiconductor:
A semiconductor is a substance, usually a solid chemical element or compound that can
conduct electricity under some conditions but not others, making it a good medium for the
control of electrical current. Its conductance varies depending on the current or voltage applied
to a control electrode, or on the intensity of irradiation by infrared (IR), visible light, ultraviolet
(UV), or X rays.
The specific properties of a semiconductor depend on the impurities, or dopants, added to it.
An N-type semiconductor carries current mainly in the form of negatively-charged electrons, in
a manner similar to the conduction of current in a wire. A P-type semiconductor carries current
predominantly as electron deficiencies called holes. A hole has a positive electric charge, equal
and opposite to the charge on an electron. In a semiconductor material, the flow of holes
occurs in a direction opposite to the flow of electrons.
Elemental semiconductors include antimony, arsenic, boron, carbon, germanium, selenium,
silicon, sulfur, and tellurium. Silicon is the best-known of these, forming the basis of most
integrated circuits (ICs). Common semiconductor compounds include gallium arsenide, indium
antimonide, and the oxides of most metals. Of these, gallium arsenide (GaAs) is widely used in
low-noise, high-gain and weak-signal amplifying devices.
A semiconductor device can perform the function of a vacuum tube having hundreds of times
its volume. A single integrated circuit (IC), such as a microprocessor chip, can do the work of a
set of vacuum tubes that would fill a large building and require its own electric generating
plant.
Conductor:
In physics and electrical engineering, a conductor is an object or type of material that allows the
flow of electrical current in one or more directions. A wire is an electrical conductor that can
carry electricity along its length.
The resistance R and conductance G of a conductor of uniform cross section, therefore, can be
computed as
where is the length of the conductor, measured in metres [m], A is the cross-section area of
the conductor measured in square metres [m²], σ (sigma) is the electrical
conductivity measured in siemens per meter (S·m−1), and ρ (rho) is the electrical resistivity(also
called specific electrical resistance) of the material, measured in ohm-metres (Ω·m). The
resistivity and conductivity are proportionality constants, and therefore depend only on the
material the wire is made of, not the geometry of the wire. Resistivity and conductivity
are reciprocals:
current.
Inductor:
An inductor is a passive electronic component that stores energy in the form of a magnetic
field. In its simplest form, an inductor consists of a wire loop or coil. The inductance is directly
proportional to the number of turns in the coil. Inductance also depends on the radius of the
coil and on the type of material around which the coil is wound. The standard unit of
inductance is the henry, abbreviated H.
Inductors are used with capacitors in various wireless communications applications. An
inductor connected in series or parallel with a capacitor can provide discrimination against
unwanted signals. Large inductors are used in the power supplies of electronic equipment of all
types, including computers and their peripherals. In these systems, the inductors help to
smooth out the rectified utility AC, providing pure, battery-like DC.
Rectifier:
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically
reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction.
Rectifiers have many uses, but are often found serving as components of DC power supplies
and high-voltage direct current power transmission systems. Rectification may serve in roles
other than to generate direct current for use as a source of power. As noted, detectors of radio
signals serve as rectifiers. In gas heating systems flame rectification is used to detect presence
of a flame.
Because of the alternating nature of the input AC sine wave, the process of rectification alone
produces a DC current that, though unidirectional, consists of pulses of current. Many
applications of rectifiers, such as power supplies for radio, television and computer equipment,
require a steady constant DC current (as would be produced by a battery). In these applications
the output of the rectifier is smoothed by an electronic filter (usually a capacitor) to produce a
steady current.
Inverter:
A power inverter, or inverter, is an electronic device or circuitry that changes direct current
(DC) to alternating current (AC).
Application: DC power source usage, Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), Electric motor
speed control, Power grid, Solar, Induction heating, HVDC power transmission, Electroshock
weapons.
Capacitor:
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component
used to store electrical energy temporarily in an electric field.
An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of
charge ±Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:
Application: Energy storage, Pulsed power and weapons, Power conditioning, Power factor
correction, High-pass and low-pass filters, Suppression and coupling, (Noise suppression, spikes,
and snubbers) , Motor starters, Signal processing, Tuned circuits, Sensing, Oscillators, Producing
light.
Transformer:
A transformer is a static machine used for transforming power from one circuit to another
without changing frequency. This is a very basic definition of transformer.
Types of transformer: Step Up Transformer & Step down Transformer, Three Phase
Transformer & Single Phase Transformer, Electrical Power Transformer, Distribution
Transformer & Instrument Transformer, Two Winding Transformer & Auto Transformer,
Outdoor Transformer & Indoor Transformer.
MOSFET:
The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or MOS FET) is a
type of transistor used for amplifying or switching electronic signals.
Application: Digital integrated circuits such as microprocessors and memory devices contain
thousands to millions of integrated MOSFET transistors on each device, providing the basic
switching functions required implementing logic gates and data storage. Discrete devices are
widely used in applications such as switch mode power supplies, variable-frequency drives and
other power electronics applications where each device may be switching hundreds or
thousands of watts. Radio-frequency amplifiers up to the UHF spectrum use MOSFET transistors
as analog signal and power amplifiers. Radio systems also use MOSFETs as oscillators, or mixers
to convert frequencies. MOSFET devices are also applied in audio-frequency power amplifiers
for public address systems, sound reinforcement and home and automobile sound systems.
CMOS:
Complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) is a technology for constructing
integrated circuits. CMOS technology is used in microprocessors, microcontrollers, static RAM,
and other digital logic circuits. CMOS technology is also used for several analog circuits such as
image sensors (CMOS sensor), data converters, and highly integrated transceivers for many
types of communication.
Logic Gate:
In electronics, a logic gate is an idealized or physical device implementing a Boolean function;
that is, it performs a logical operation on one or more logical inputs, and produces a single
logical output.
IC:
An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit (also referred to as an IC, a chip, or a
microchip) is a set of electronic circuits on one small plate ("chip") of semiconductor material,
normally silicon.
VFD:
A Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) is a type of motor controller that drives an electric motor by
varying the frequency and voltage supplied to the electric motor. Other names for a VFD are
variable speed drive, adjustable speed drive, adjustable frequency drive, AC drive, microdrive,
and inverter.
Servo Drive:
A servo drive is a special electronic amplifier used to power electric servomechanisms. A servo
drive monitors the feedback signal from the servomechanism and continually adjusts for
deviation from expected behavior.
Servo systems can be used in CNC machining, factory automation, and robotics, among other
uses. Their main advantage over traditional DC or AC motors is the addition of motor feedback.
This feedback can be used to detect unwanted motion, or to ensure the accuracy of the
commanded motion. The feedback is generally provided by an encoder of some sort. Servos, in
constant speed changing use, have a better life cycle than typical AC wound motors. Servo
motors can also act as a brake by shunting off generated electricity from the motor itself.
DC converter:
A DC-to-DC converter is an electronic circuit which converts a source of direct current (DC) from
one voltage level to another. It is a class of power converter. DC to DC converters are important
in portable electronic devices such as cellular phones and laptop computers, which are supplied
with power from batteries primarily.
Electric Motor:
An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy.
To calculate a motor's efficiency, the mechanical output power is divided by the electrical input
power:
Where is energy conversion efficiency, is electrical input power, and is mechanical output
power.
A premium efficiency electric motor: more than 90%.
Electric Generator:
In electricity generation, a generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical
energy for use in an external circuit.
Generator Efficiency:
Various power stages in the case of a d.c generator are shown below:
Following are the three generator efficiencies
1. Mechanical Efficiency
2. Electrical Efficiency
3. Overall or Commercial Efficiency
It is obvious that overall efficiency is the product of mechanical and electrical efficiencies. For
good generators, its value may be as high as 95%.
Home automation:
Home automation is the residential extension of building automation. It is automation of the
home, housework or household activity. Home automation may include centralized control of
lighting, HVAC (heating, ventilation and air conditioning), appliances, security locks of gates and
doors and other systems, to provide improved convenience, comfort, energy efficiency and
security.
Advantages of automation:
(1) Increased throughput or productivity. (2) Improved quality or increased predictability of
quality. (3) Improved robustness (consistency), of processes or product. (4) Increased
consistency of output. (5) Reduced direct human labor costs and expenses.
Disadvantages of automation:
(1) Security Threats/Vulnerability. (2) Unpredictable/excessive development costs. (3) High
initial cost.
Relay:
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Relays are used where it is necessary to control a
circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical isolation between control and controlled
circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal.
Magnetic conductor:
A magnetic conductor is a part or a kit of parts intended for a lossy magnetic flow generated
with current in windings of such devices as transformers, throttles, magnetic cartridges, filters
and circuits.
Sensor:
A sensor is an object whose purpose is to detect events or changes in its environment, and then
provide a corresponding output. A sensor is a type of transducer; sensors may provide various
types of output, but typically use electrical or optical signals.
Transducer:
A transducer is an electronic device that converts energy from one form to another. Common
examples include microphones, loudspeakers, thermometers, position and pressure sensors,
and antenna.
Optocoupler:
In electronics, an opto-isolator, also called an optocoupler, photocoupler, or optical isolator, is a
component that transfers electrical signals between two isolated circuits by using light. Optoisolators prevent high voltages from affecting the system receiving the signal.
Transistor:
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic signals and electrical
power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at least three terminals for connection to
an external circuit. The transistor's low cost, flexibility, and reliability have made it a ubiquitous
device. Transistors are commonly used in digital circuits as electronic switches which can be
either in an "on" or "off" state, both for high-power applications such as switched-mode power
supplies and for low-power applications such as logic gates.
Thermostat:
A thermostat is a component of which senses the temperature of a system so that the system's
temperature is maintained near a desired set point. The thermostat does this by switching
heating or cooling devices on or off, or regulating the flow of a heat transfer fluid as needed, to
maintain the correct temperature. Thermostats are used in any device or system that heats or
cools to a set point temperature, examples include building HVAC/air conditioner and central
heating, kitchen equipment including ovens and refrigerators and medical and scientific
incubators.
Laws of resistance:
The laws of resistance state that, Electrical resistance R of a conductor or wire is
1. Directly proportional to its length, l i.e. R ∝ l
2. Inversely proportional to its area of cross-section, a i.e.
Combining these two laws we get,
where ρ (rho) is the proportionality constant and known as resistivity or specific resistance of
the material of the conductor or wire.
Ohm’s law:
Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly
proportional to the voltage across the two points. Introducing the constant of proportionality,
the resistance, one arrives at the usual mathematical equation that describes this relationship: